By Chow W.W., Koch S.W
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He then points out that this assumed requirement has no a priori reason to hold, in general, for a hidden-variables theory, especially when different operators correspond to physically different measuring apparatuses, and when these eigenvalues are also to be taken as the possible measurement outcomes for the associated apparatus. Furthermore, without this linearity assumption, von Neumann's argument neither obtains, nor constrains hidden-variable theories. Correspondingly, hidden variables are then no longer found to be "impossible" for alternative theories (to quantum mechanics) by von Neumann's argument.
Interaction atom - single mode laser field When lasers appeared in the sixties, one important theoretical problem which was raised was the description of an atom interacting with a single mode coherent field. Two models were then developed in connection with this problem. 1. Jaynes-Cummings model In this model [50], a two-level atom is put in a single mode cavity and interacts with a single-mode electromagnetic field. Formally, we have a spin Y2 coupled to a onedimensional harmonic oscillator. This model has proved to be extremely useful a few years later when experiments started to be achieved in what is called now cavity QED.
Good optical resonators When lasers started to be built in the early sixties, some physicists soon realized that tbe confocal Fabry-Perot, developed by P. Connes a few years before [40-,41]· was very useful. Such a scheme uses a cavity formed by two spherical mirrors having equal radii of curvature and coincident foci. It turned out to be a very convenient optical resonator and it played an important role in the development oflaser source. Another example of development which occurred in the sixties in France was the pulse compression scheme and the Gires-Tournois interferometer[42J.